course 9095 Assignment 2 AIOU

 Course: Language &Culture (9059)    Semester: Spring, 2024Level: BS English

Assignment No. 2

(Units 5-9)

Q.1.     Politeness is observable social phenomenon. Explain what you mean by politeness. How many types of politeness are there?Contrast politeness with impoliteness citing at least five examples from the social context. In each context, present your examples in form of verbal exchanges between two persons.

Politeness and Impoliteness

Politeness: Politeness is a social behavior that shows respect, consideration, and care for others. It includes manners, etiquette, and tact in communication. Politeness helps maintain harmony and positive relationships in society.

Types of Politeness:

1. Positive Politeness: Seeks to build rapport and show friendliness. It includes compliments, showing interest, and using inclusive language.
2. Negative Politeness: Aims to avoid imposition and respects personal space. It includes apologies, indirect requests, and formal language.
3. Bald-on-Record Politeness: Direct and straightforward communication without any minimization of imposition.
4. Off-Record Politeness: Indirect communication that relies on implication and inference, leaving room for interpretation.

Examples of Politeness vs. Impoliteness:

1. Social Greeting:
   • Politeness:
     • Person A: “Good morning! How are you today?”
     • Person B: “Good morning! I’m doing well, thank you. How about you?”
   • Impoliteness:
     • Person A: “Hey.”
     • Person B: “What do you want?”
2. Requesting Help:
   • Politeness:
     • Person A: “Could you please help me with this report?”
     • Person B: “Of course, I’d be happy to help.”
   • Impoliteness:
     • Person A: “Do this report for me.”
     • Person B: “Do it yourself.”
3. Apologizing:
   • Politeness:
     • Person A: “I’m really sorry for being late. I’ll make sure it doesn’t happen again.”
     • Person B: “No problem, thanks for letting me know.”
   • Impoliteness:
     • Person A: “I’m late. Deal with it.”
     • Person B: “You’re always late. It’s annoying.”
4. Giving Feedback:
   • Politeness:
     • Person A: “I think you did a great job, but maybe we could improve this section a bit.”
     • Person B: “Thank you for the feedback. I’ll work on it.”
   • Impoliteness:
     • Person A: “This section is terrible. Fix it.”
     • Person B: “Fine, whatever.”
5. Declining an Invitation:
   • Politeness:
     • Person A: “Thank you for inviting me, but I have a prior commitment. Maybe next time?”
     • Person B: “I understand. We’ll catch up another time.”
   • Impoliteness:
     • Person A: “I don’t want to go.”
     • Person B: “Suit yourself.”

Q.2.     Refer to unit 6 of your book every language has its own set of kinship terms which is unique due to cultural differences. List some kinship terms that you use in your language. Explain the descent systems that help identify kinship terms in a culture.  

Kinship Terms and Descent Systems

Kinship Terms: Kinship terms are the words used in a language to refer to family members and relatives. They reflect cultural and social relationships.

Examples in Urdu:

• Father: “Abbu” or “Baba”
• Mother: “Ammi” or “Maan”
• Brother: “Bhai”
• Sister: “Behen”
• Grandfather: “Dada” (paternal), “Nana” (maternal)
• Grandmother: “Dadi” (paternal), “Nani” (maternal)
• Uncle: “Chacha” (paternal), “Mama” (maternal)
• Aunt: “Chachi” (paternal), “Khala” (maternal)

Descent Systems:

1. Patrilineal Descent:
   • Descent is traced through the male line.
   • Inheritance and family name are passed down from father to son.
   • Example: Many South Asian cultures, including Pakistani culture.
2. Matrilineal Descent:
   • Descent is traced through the female line.
   • Inheritance and family name are passed down from mother to daughter.
   • Example: Some tribal communities in India and Africa.
3. Bilineal (or Bilateral) Descent:
   • Descent is traced through both the male and female lines.
   • Inheritance and family name can come from either the father or the mother.
   • Example: Western cultures, including the United States.

Q.3.     Like all other languages, your language also has its own system of kinshipclassification. Explain the system your language uses. Provide examples of kinship terms and compare them with another system of kinship classification that you have read about in unit 6.

Kinship Classification in Urdu and Comparison

Kinship Classification in Urdu: Urdu kinship terms are specific and vary based on gender and side of the family (paternal or maternal).

Examples:

• Father’s Brother: “Chacha” (younger), “Taya” (older)
• Mother’s Brother: “Mama”
• Father’s Sister: “Phuphi”
• Mother’s Sister: “Khala”
• Brother’s Wife: “Bhabhi”
• Sister’s Husband: “Behnoi”

Comparison with English Kinship Terms: In English, kinship terms are more generalized and do not differentiate as much between maternal and paternal sides or the relative’s age.

Examples:

• “Uncle” for both maternal and paternal uncles.
• “Aunt” for both maternal and paternal aunts.
• “Brother-in-law” for both sister’s husband and spouse’s brother.
• “Sister-in-law” for both brother’s wife and spouse’s sister.

Q.4.     Refer to Unit 7, Section 1,different kinds of symbolic and figurative meanings are assigned to colours in different language. Colours are used to present emotions, which, of course, varies from culture to culture. Think about colour idioms in your language (Urdu, Punjabi, Pashto, Balochi, Sindhi etc) and discuss in detail how they represent different emotions.  Also contrast it with the way they represent different emotions in another culture.

Color Idioms and Emotions

Color Idioms in Urdu:

• Red (لال): “Lal Peela Hona” (to become very angry).
• Green (سبز): “Sabz Bagh Dikhana” (to show false dreams or promises).
• White (سفید): “Safed Jhoot” (a blatant lie).
• Black (کالا): “Kala Dil” (an evil or cruel heart).
• Blue (نیلا): “Neela Peela” (bruised or beaten).

Color Idioms in English:

• Red: “Seeing red” (to become very angry).
• Green: “Green with envy” (very jealous).
• White: “White lie” (a harmless or small lie).
• Black: “Black heart” (evil or cruel).
• Blue: “Feeling blue” (feeling sad or depressed).

Comparison:

• Both cultures use red to symbolize anger.
• Green represents envy in English but false promises in Urdu.
• White is associated with lying in both cultures, though the contexts differ.
• Black symbolizes evil or cruelty in both cultures.
• Blue represents sadness in English but physical bruising in Urdu.

Q.5.     It is stated that ‘the human language and cognition have evolved with the human mindthinking and knowing on the basis and with the help of the human body.’ elaborate

Evolution of Human Language and Cognition

Introduction: The evolution of human language and cognition is a fascinating topic that intersects anthropology, linguistics, psychology, and neuroscience. It posits that human language and cognitive abilities have co-evolved, each influencing the development of the other. This interdependent evolution has profoundly shaped human societies and our ability to think, communicate, and innovate.

Human Language Evolution:

1. Biological Basis:
   • Human language likely evolved due to changes in brain structure, particularly the enlargement and specialization of regions like Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area, which are critical for language production and comprehension.
   • The development of the vocal apparatus, including the larynx, pharynx, and mouth, allowed for a wide range of sounds necessary for complex speech.
2. Cognitive Advancements:
   • The emergence of syntax and grammar allowed humans to convey abstract concepts, relationships, and sequences, moving beyond basic communication to complex expressions of ideas and emotions.
   • Language facilitated the development of episodic memory (recollection of personal experiences) and semantic memory (knowledge about the world), enhancing problem-solving and planning abilities.

Cognition and Language Interdependence:

1. Enhanced Communication:
   • Language allowed for the transmission of knowledge across generations, fostering cultural evolution and the accumulation of shared wisdom, technologies, and social norms.
   • It enabled complex social structures and cooperation by allowing individuals to articulate intentions, negotiate, and build alliances.
2. Abstract Thinking:
   • Language provides a medium for abstract thought, enabling humans to conceptualize and discuss ideas that are not immediately present or tangible.
   • This capacity for abstraction is critical for scientific reasoning, philosophy, and art.
3. Symbolic Representation:
   • Language evolved as a system of symbols, where words represent objects, actions, and ideas. This symbolic nature of language mirrors the cognitive ability to use symbols in thinking and problem-solving.
   • The use of metaphors and analogies in language reflects and reinforces cognitive abilities to understand and relate different concepts.

Co-Evolutionary Feedback Loop:

1. Cultural Evolution:
   • As language evolved, it facilitated more complex cultures, which in turn drove further cognitive development.
   • Cultural practices, such as storytelling, rituals, and education, enhanced linguistic skills and cognitive abilities, creating a feedback loop of mutual enhancement.
2. Social Brain Hypothesis:
   • The social brain hypothesis suggests that the demands of living in large, complex social groups drove the evolution of large brains and sophisticated cognitive abilities, including language.
   • Language is essential for managing social relationships, from forming alliances to understanding social hierarchies and navigating social conflicts.

Conclusion: The evolution of human language and cognition is a deeply intertwined process. Language has not only been a tool for communication but also a driver of cognitive development, cultural evolution, and social complexity. The human mind’s capacity to think, know, and innovate is fundamentally linked to our linguistic abilities, demonstrating the profound co-evolution of these aspects of our humanity.

Q. 6     What is the post-modernist view of culture, language and communication? What is meant by ‘truncated repertoires’ or ‘disposable linguistic resources

Post-Modernist View of Culture, Language, and Communication

Introduction: Post-modernism is a broad intellectual movement that emerged in the mid-20th century, characterized by skepticism towards grand narratives and ideologies. It emphasizes the fragmented, subjective, and constructed nature of knowledge and reality. In the context of culture, language, and communication, post-modernist views challenge traditional notions and highlight the diversity and fluidity of human experiences.

Post-Modernist View of Culture:

1. Fragmentation:
   • Post-modernists argue that culture is not a single, cohesive entity but a collection of diverse, overlapping, and sometimes conflicting subcultures.
   • This perspective recognizes the multiplicity of identities and cultural expressions, rejecting the idea of a unified cultural narrative.
2. Hyperreality:
   • Influenced by theorists like Jean Baudrillard, post-modernism suggests that in the age of media saturation, reality is often replaced by simulated experiences, or “hyperreality.”
   • Cultural artifacts and symbols are seen as detached from their original meanings, creating a world where distinctions between reality and simulation are blurred.
3. Cultural Relativism:
   • Post-modernism embraces cultural relativism, the idea that no single culture or value system is inherently superior to another.
   • This approach encourages the appreciation of cultural diversity and the understanding that cultural norms and values are context-dependent.

Post-Modernist View of Language:

1. Deconstruction:
   • Post-modernist thinkers, particularly Jacques Derrida, emphasize the deconstruction of language, challenging the fixed meanings of words and texts.
   • Language is viewed as inherently unstable, with meanings constantly shifting based on context and interpretation.
2. Intertextuality:
   • Language and texts are seen as interconnected, with meanings derived from their relationships to other texts rather than standing alone.
   • This view highlights the dialogic nature of language, where understanding is shaped by an ongoing conversation across different contexts and interpretations.
3. Power Dynamics:
   • Post-modernism examines how language is used to construct and maintain power relationships.
   • It critiques the ways in which language can marginalize certain groups while privileging others, emphasizing the political nature of linguistic practices.

Post-Modernist View of Communication:

1. Multiplicity of Voices:
   • Communication is seen as a process involving multiple voices and perspectives, each contributing to the construction of meaning.
   • This view challenges traditional models of communication that focus on a single sender and receiver, instead highlighting the interactive and participatory nature of communication.
2. Fluidity and Change:
   • Communication practices are viewed as fluid and constantly evolving, influenced by changes in technology, society, and culture.
   • Post-modernism acknowledges the rapid pace of change in communication mediums and methods, from oral traditions to digital media.
3. Subversion and Play:
   • Post-modernist communication often involves subversion, irony, and playfulness, challenging conventional norms and expectations.
   • This approach encourages creative and critical engagement with communication practices, fostering a sense of experimentation and innovation.

Truncated Repertoires and Disposable Linguistic Resources:

1. Truncated Repertoires:
   • Refers to the limited set of linguistic resources available to individuals in specific contexts or communities.
   • These repertoires are shaped by social, economic, and cultural factors, influencing how individuals communicate and express themselves.
2. Disposable Linguistic Resources:
   • Describes language skills and expressions that are adaptable and can be easily modified or discarded based on changing social and communicative needs.
   • This concept reflects the flexible and pragmatic use of language in a post-modern context, where linguistic practices are constantly in flux.

Conclusion: The post-modernist view of culture, language, and communication emphasizes diversity, fluidity, and the constructed nature of reality. By challenging traditional notions and highlighting the multiplicity of perspectives, post-modernism offers a rich framework for understanding the complexities of human interaction and cultural expression. Concepts like truncated repertoires and disposable linguistic resources further illustrate the dynamic and adaptive nature of language in a rapidly changing world.