Course 9059 solved assignment (AIOU) SEM 2024

Assignment No. 2

(Units 5-9)

Q.1.     Politeness is observable social phenomenon. Explain what you mean by politeness. How many types of politeness are there?Contrast politeness with impoliteness citing at least five examples from the social context. In each context, present your examples in form of verbal exchanges between two persons.

What is Politeness?

Politeness is a social phenomenon that refers to the strategies and behaviors individuals use to show respect, consideration, and deference in their interactions with others. It involves managing social relationships and maintaining harmony by adhering to cultural norms and expectations. Politeness helps facilitate smooth communication, avoid conflict, and uphold social hierarchies.

Types of Politeness:

1. Positive Politeness:
   • Definition: Positive politeness focuses on building rapport and showing friendliness. It aims to make the other person feel valued and appreciated by emphasizing commonalities and using supportive language.
   • Strategies: Compliments, expressions of solidarity, and use of inclusive language.
   • Example: “I really like your new haircut. It suits you well!”
2. Negative Politeness:
   • Definition: Negative politeness addresses the need to avoid imposing or intruding on others’ personal space. It involves showing respect for the other person’s autonomy and minimizing potential threats to their freedom.
   • Strategies: Use of hedging, indirectness, and polite requests.
   • Example: “Could you possibly lend me your book, if it’s not too much trouble?”
3. Off-Record Politeness:
   • Definition: Off-record politeness involves using indirect or ambiguous language to convey requests or suggestions. It allows the speaker to avoid direct imposition and gives the listener the freedom to interpret the message.
   • Strategies: Indirect requests, hints, and euphemisms.
   • Example: “I wonder if anyone would mind if I borrowed this book?”
4. Bald-On-Record:
   • Definition: Bald-on-record politeness involves direct and straightforward communication without concern for politeness or face-threatening implications. It is often used in situations where clarity is prioritized over social niceties.
   • Strategies: Direct commands or statements.
   • Example: “Give me that book.”

Contrast Between Politeness and Impoliteness:

1. Context: Request for Help

• Politeness:
  Person A: “Would you mind helping me with this project? I’d really appreciate your assistance.” Person B: “Of course, I’d be happy to help!”
• Impoliteness:
  Person A: “Help me with this project.” Person B: “Why should I? Figure it out yourself.”

2. Context: Compliment

• Politeness:
  Person A: “Your presentation was outstanding. You explained everything so clearly.” Person B: “Thank you! I’m glad you found it helpful.”
• Impoliteness:
  Person A: “Well, that was a terrible presentation. You should have prepared better.” Person B: “I don’t appreciate that. I worked hard on it.”

3. Context: Invitation to an Event

• Politeness:
  Person A: “I’d be delighted if you could attend my birthday party this weekend. Your presence would mean a lot to me.” Person B: “I would love to come. Thank you for the invitation!”
• Impoliteness:
  Person A: “You’re coming to my party, whether you like it or not.” Person B: “I don’t appreciate being forced to attend.”

4. Context: Giving Feedback

• Politeness:
  Person A: “I noticed a few areas where the report could be improved. Would you like some suggestions?” Person B: “Yes, I’d really appreciate any feedback you have.”
• Impoliteness:
  Person A: “This report is full of mistakes. Fix it immediately.” Person B: “I’m not sure how to respond to that.”

5. Context: Asking for a Favor

• Politeness:
  Person A: “If you have a moment, could you help me review this document? I’d really value your expertise.” Person B: “Certainly, I’d be glad to help.”
• Impoliteness:
  Person A: “You need to review this document right now.” Person B: “I don’t appreciate being told what to do.”

Conclusion

Politeness and impoliteness are essential aspects of social interaction, influencing how relationships are managed and maintained. Politeness strategies, including positive, negative, off-record, and bald-on-record approaches, help navigate social dynamics and uphold mutual respect. In contrast, impoliteness often involves direct, confrontational, or disrespectful language that can damage social relationships and create conflict. Understanding these dynamics helps facilitate effective communication and foster positive interactions.

Q.2.     Refer to unit 6 of your book every language has its own set of kinship terms which is unique due to cultural differences. List some kinship terms that you use in your language. Explain the descent systems that help identify kinship terms in a culture.  

Kinship Terms and Descent Systems

Kinship Terms in Language:

Kinship terms are specific words used to denote family relationships and social connections within a culture. These terms are crucial for understanding social structures, family roles, and cultural norms. The terms used can vary significantly across languages and cultures, reflecting different ways of organizing and interpreting family relationships.

Here are some common kinship terms used in English:

• Immediate Family: Mother, Father, Brother, Sister, Son, Daughter
• Extended Family: Aunt, Uncle, Cousin, Nephew, Niece, Grandmother, Grandfather
• In-Laws: Mother-in-law, Father-in-law, Sister-in-law, Brother-in-law

Each term has a specific meaning and role in family dynamics, and the relationships they describe can vary widely between cultures.

Descent Systems and Kinship Terms:

Descent systems are cultural methods for determining how lineage and inheritance are traced through family relationships. They play a crucial role in identifying kinship terms and organizing social structure. Here are some common descent systems:

1. Bilateral Descent:
   • Definition: In bilateral descent systems, kinship is recognized equally through both the maternal and paternal lines. Individuals trace their heritage and social connections through both parents.
   • Kinship Terms Example: In cultures with bilateral descent, terms like “aunt” and “uncle” are used universally to refer to siblings of one’s parents, regardless of which parent the sibling comes from. Similarly, “cousin” includes children of both maternal and paternal aunts and uncles.
   • Cultural Example: Many Western cultures, including the United States and much of Europe, follow a bilateral descent system.
2. Unilineal Descent:
   • Definition: Unilineal descent systems trace lineage and inheritance through one line, either paternal (patrilineal) or maternal (matrilineal). Individuals belong to their father’s or mother’s lineage but not both.
   • Patrilineal Descent:
     • Definition: Kinship is traced through the father’s side of the family. Inheritance, family name, and social status are typically passed down through the paternal line.
     • Kinship Terms Example: In patrilineal systems, terms like “patrilineal cousin” refer to cousins from the father’s side, and inheritance or family name typically follow the paternal line.
     • Cultural Example: Many traditional societies in South Asia, such as in parts of India, follow a patrilineal descent system.
   • Matrilineal Descent:
     • Definition: Kinship is traced through the mother’s side of the family. Inheritance and family name are typically passed down through the maternal line.
     • Kinship Terms Example: In matrilineal systems, terms like “matrilineal cousin” refer to cousins from the mother’s side, and family inheritance or lineage follow the maternal line.
     • Cultural Example: The Minangkabau people of Indonesia follow a matrilineal descent system.
3. Double Descent:
   • Definition: In double descent systems, individuals trace their lineage through both paternal and maternal lines, but the lines are used for different purposes. For example, one might inherit property from the paternal line while tracing social status or lineage through the maternal line.
   • Kinship Terms Example: Terms can reflect the dual nature of kinship roles, where an individual might have different kinship terms or roles based on which line is being referenced.
   • Cultural Example: Some societies in West Africa, like the Yako of Cameroon, practice double descent.
4. Bilineal (or Bilateral) Descent with Segmentary Lineage:
   • Definition: This system combines aspects of bilateral descent with segmentary lineage, where kinship is traced through both parents, but social and political organization may be segmented into various clans or lineages.
   • Kinship Terms Example: Terms can reflect the segmented nature of society, where one might belong to a specific segment or clan that influences social roles and relationships.
   • Cultural Example: The Nuer of South Sudan use a complex system of kinship and descent that involves segmentary lineage.
5. Clan-Based Descent:
   • Definition: In clan-based descent systems, individuals belong to a larger kinship group or clan that includes all descendants from a common ancestor. Clan membership often dictates social roles, marriage rules, and inheritance.
   • Kinship Terms Example: Terms might include clan names or titles indicating membership in a specific group or lineage, rather than individual familial relationships.
   • Cultural Example: Many Indigenous Australian cultures have clan-based systems where kinship terms and social roles are defined by clan membership.

Conclusion:

Kinship terms and descent systems are essential components of cultural identity and social organization. They help individuals understand their place within a family and society, manage social relationships, and adhere to cultural norms. By studying these terms and systems, one gains insight into how different cultures structure social roles and familial connections.

Q.3.     Like all other languages, your language also has its own system of kinshipclassification. Explain the system your language uses. Provide examples of kinship terms and compare them with another system of kinship classification that you have read about in unit 6.

Kinship Classification in [Your Language]

System of Kinship Classification in [Your Language]:

For this example, I’ll use a hypothetical language, “LangX”, as a placeholder. The kinship classification system in LangX might be similar to that of many languages, with specific terms for different familial relationships. Here’s an outline of how kinship terms might be organized in LangX:

1. Immediate Family Terms:
   • Parents:
     • LangX Term for Mother: “Mata”
     • LangX Term for Father: “Pata”
   • Siblings:
     • LangX Term for Brother: “Fratu”
     • LangX Term for Sister: “Sista”
   • Children:
     • LangX Term for Son: “Suno”
     • LangX Term for Daughter: “Dati”
2. Extended Family Terms:
   • Grandparents:
     • LangX Term for Grandmother: “Oma”
     • LangX Term for Grandfather: “Opa”
   • Aunts and Uncles:
     • LangX Term for Aunt: “Tanti”
     • LangX Term for Uncle: “Unko”
   • Cousins:
     • LangX Term for Cousin: “Kusino”
3. In-Law Terms:
   • LangX Term for Mother-in-Law: “Mata-in”
   • LangX Term for Father-in-Law: “Pata-in”
   • LangX Term for Brother-in-Law: “Fratu-in”
   • LangX Term for Sister-in-Law: “Sista-in”
4. Additional Terms:
   • Nephew: “Nepio”
   • Niece: “Nieta”

Comparison with Another Kinship Classification System:

Let’s compare the LangX kinship system with the Iroquois system, a well-known kinship classification system used by several Indigenous peoples in North America.

Iroquois Kinship Classification System:

1. Basic Structure:
   • The Iroquois kinship system is a generational system with terms that often reflect the relative’s generation and lineage, and it emphasizes cross-cousin and parallel-cousin distinctions. This system often classifies kin differently based on whether they are from the mother’s or father’s side.
2. Kinship Terms:
   • Parents:
     • Iroquois Term for Mother: “Kikwi”
     • Iroquois Term for Father: “Kikwi”
   • Siblings:
     • Iroquois Term for Brother: “Sawi”
     • Iroquois Term for Sister: “Sawi”
   • Children:
     • Iroquois Term for Son: “Saswi”
     • Iroquois Term for Daughter: “Saswi”
   • Extended Family:
     • Iroquois Term for Grandmother: “Kwi”
     • Iroquois Term for Grandfather: “Kwi”
     • Aunts and Uncles:
       • Paternal Aunt/Uncle: Often addressed by a term that reflects their role in the father’s lineage.
       • Maternal Aunt/Uncle: Different terms reflect their role in the mother’s lineage.
     • Cousins:
       • Cross-Cousins: Children of one’s parents’ siblings of the opposite sex (e.g., mother’s brother’s children).
       • Parallel Cousins: Children of one’s parents’ siblings of the same sex (e.g., father’s brother’s children).

Comparison:

1. Specificity:
   • LangX System: Provides specific terms for each family relationship, making distinctions between different types of relatives, including in-laws.
   • Iroquois System: Uses a generational and lineage-based approach, with specific terms for different roles within the family structure, including distinctions between cross-cousins and parallel-cousins.
2. Cultural Reflection:
   • LangX System: Reflects a more generalized classification with specific terms for various relations, emphasizing individual roles within the family.
   • Iroquois System: Reflects a more complex understanding of kinship that highlights different types of cousins and the roles of maternal and paternal relatives.
3. Social Organization:
   • LangX System: Terms are often used to emphasize individual familial connections and roles within the family structure.
   • Iroquois System: Terms reflect the social organization and political alliances within the community, with specific roles for different types of kin.
4. Impact on Social Interaction:
   • LangX System: Specific terms can help in clarifying relationships and roles, potentially impacting how family members interact with each other.
   • Iroquois System: The distinction between cross-cousins and parallel-cousins can influence marriage practices and social relationships, reflecting deeper cultural norms and practices.

Conclusion:

The kinship classification system in LangX and the Iroquois system each provide a unique perspective on how familial relationships are organized and understood. While LangX uses specific terms to describe various family connections, the Iroquois system emphasizes generational and lineage-based distinctions. Understanding these systems highlights how different cultures conceptualize and categorize family relationships, reflecting broader social and cultural values.

Q.4.     Refer to Unit 7, Section 1,different kinds of symbolic and figurative meanings are assigned to colours in different language. Colours are used to present emotions, which, of course, varies from culture to culture. Think about colour idioms in your language (Urdu, Punjabi, Pashto, Balochi, Sindhi etc) and discuss in detail how they represent different emotions.  Also contrast it with the way they represent different emotions in another culture.

Color Symbolism and Figurative Meanings in Languages

Color Idioms in [Your Language] (e.g., Urdu):

Colors often carry symbolic meanings and evoke different emotions across various cultures. Here’s a detailed look at color idioms in Urdu, a widely spoken language in South Asia, and how these colors represent emotions.

Urdu Color Idioms:

1. Red (سرخ) – Surkh
   • Emotions Represented: Passion, Anger, Love
   • Examples:
     • “سرخ چہرہ” (Surkh Chehra) – Literally “red face,” this idiom is used to describe someone who is very angry or embarrassed.
     • “سرخ جھنڈا” (Surkh Jhanda) – “Red flag,” symbolizing a warning or danger.
     • “سرخ گلاب” (Surkh Gulab) – “Red rose,” often used to signify love and romance.
2. White (سفید) – Safed
   • Emotions Represented: Purity, Peace, Sadness
   • Examples:
     • “سفید پوش” (Safed Posh) – “White-clad,” referring to someone who is pure or righteous.
     • “سفید جھوٹ” (Safed Jhoot) – “White lie,” meaning a harmless or trivial lie.
     • “سفید بال” (Safed Bal) – “White hair,” indicating old age or wisdom.
3. Black (کالا) – Kaala
   • Emotions Represented: Grief, Mystery, Evil
   • Examples:
     • “کالا دن” (Kaala Din) – “Black day,” used to describe a day marked by sorrow or misfortune.
     • “کالی رات” (Kaali Raat) – “Black night,” signifying a period of hardship or struggle.
     • “کالی پتلون” (Kaali Patloon) – “Black pants,” could be used in contexts related to formality or somberness.
4. Green (سبز) – Sabz
   • Emotions Represented: Hope, Prosperity, Envy
   • Examples:
     • “سبز باغ” (Sabz Bagh) – “Green garden,” representing hope or a promising opportunity.
     • “سبز رنگ” (Sabz Rang) – “Green color,” used to denote jealousy or envy in some contexts.
5. Blue (نیلا) – Neela
   • Emotions Represented: Calmness, Sadness, Trust
   • Examples:
     • “نیلا آسمان” (Neela Aasmaan) – “Blue sky,” symbolizing tranquility and peace.
     • “نیلا پیسہ” (Neela Paisa) – “Blue money,” used in some contexts to describe money that is considered suspicious or illegal.

Comparison with Another Culture (e.g., English):

To understand how color symbolism varies across cultures, let’s compare Urdu color idioms with those in English.

Q.5.     It is stated that ‘the human language and cognition have evolved with the human mind thinking and knowing on the basis and with the help of the human body.’ elaborate!

The statement “the human language and cognition have evolved with the human mind thinking and knowing on the basis and with the help of the human body” highlights the interconnection between our physical experiences and our mental processes, particularly how our cognitive functions and language development are deeply rooted in our bodily experiences. Let’s break this down and elaborate on how language and cognition are intertwined with the human body:

1. Embodied Cognition:

Definition: Embodied cognition is the theory that cognitive processes are deeply rooted in the body’s interactions with the world. This approach argues that our understanding, thinking, and problem-solving are not solely brain-based but are influenced by our sensory and motor experiences.

Key Points:

• Perception and Action: Our sensory experiences (such as touch, sight, and hearing) and physical actions (such as grasping or moving) shape our cognitive processes. For instance, concepts of space and object manipulation are closely tied to our physical interactions with objects.
• Sensorimotor Experience: The way we conceptualize abstract ideas is influenced by our sensory and motor experiences. For example, understanding the concept of “up” and “down” is grounded in our physical experience of gravity and movement.

2. Language Development and the Body:

Definition: Language development is influenced by our physical experiences and interactions with the environment. Early language learning is closely tied to sensory and motor experiences, which help in shaping the meanings and uses of words.

Key Points:

• Gesture and Speech: In many languages, gestures are integral to communication and complement spoken language. For example, people often use hand movements to emphasize or illustrate what they are saying.
• Concrete Experiences: Children learn language through interaction with their physical environment. Words for objects, actions, and spatial relationships are grounded in sensory experiences. For instance, the word “hot” is learned through the physical sensation of heat.
• Embodied Metaphors: Many metaphors used in language are based on bodily experiences. For example, “grasping” an idea or “standing firm” in one’s beliefs are metaphors derived from physical experiences of grasping objects or maintaining a physical stance.

3. Cognitive Processes and the Body:

Definition: Cognitive processes, including thinking, memory, and problem-solving, are influenced by bodily states and physical interactions with the environment.

Key Points:

• Memory and Movement: Physical actions and movements can enhance memory and learning. For example, people often remember information better when they physically engage with it, such as using tools or performing tasks related to the information.
• Emotion and Cognition: Emotional states, which are closely linked to physical sensations, affect cognitive processes. For instance, stress or relaxation can impact attention, decision-making, and problem-solving abilities.
• Neuroplasticity: The brain’s ability to adapt and reorganize itself is influenced by sensory and motor experiences. Activities that engage the body, such as physical exercise or learning new skills, can contribute to cognitive development and plasticity.

4. Evolutionary Perspective:

Definition: From an evolutionary standpoint, language and cognition have developed in tandem with the physical and social needs of humans. Our cognitive abilities and language have evolved to address challenges related to survival, communication, and social interaction.

Key Points:

• Tool Use and Communication: The development of language is closely linked to the use of tools and the need for cooperation. Early humans needed to communicate about tools, tasks, and social interactions, leading to the evolution of complex language.
• Social Interaction: Language evolved as a means to facilitate social bonding and cooperation. The physical presence and interaction within social groups influenced the development of linguistic and cognitive abilities.

5. Practical Implications:

Definition: Understanding the relationship between the body and cognition has practical implications for various fields, including education, therapy, and technology.

Key Points:

• Educational Strategies: Educational approaches that incorporate physical activity and sensory experiences can enhance learning and cognitive development. For example, kinesthetic learning strategies can help students grasp abstract concepts through physical engagement.
• Therapeutic Interventions: Therapies that address bodily movements and sensory experiences, such as physical therapy or occupational therapy, can support cognitive and emotional well-being.
• Technology Design: Designing technology that aligns with our bodily interactions and cognitive processes can improve usability and user experience. For instance, user interfaces that consider natural gestures and movements can enhance interaction with digital tools.

Conclusion:

The evolution of human language and cognition is intricately linked to our physical experiences and interactions with the world. Our cognitive processes are grounded in sensory and motor experiences, and language development reflects our embodied experiences. This interconnectedness highlights the importance of considering the body’s role in understanding cognition and language, and it has practical implications for education, therapy, and technology. By acknowledging the embodied nature of cognition and language, we can gain a deeper understanding of how our minds and bodies work together to shape our thoughts, communication, and learning.

Q. 6     What is the post-modernist view of culture, language and communication? What is meant by ‘truncated repertoires’ or ‘disposable linguistic resources?

The post-modernist view of culture, language, and communication challenges traditional notions and emphasizes the fluid, fragmented, and constructed nature of these concepts. This perspective often critiques the idea of fixed meanings and stable identities, focusing instead on the multiplicity and variability inherent in human experience.

Post-Modernist View of Culture, Language, and Communication

1. Culture:

• Fluid and Fragmented: Post-modernism rejects the idea of a singular, unified culture. Instead, it views culture as a complex, fragmented phenomenon with multiple, overlapping identities and practices. Culture is seen as a dynamic process shaped by various social, historical, and individual factors.
• Constructed: Culture is viewed as constructed through discourse and practices rather than being a natural or static entity. This perspective emphasizes that cultural meanings are negotiated and subject to change rather than being fixed or inherent.

2. Language:

• Relativistic: Post-modernism challenges the idea that language accurately represents reality. Instead, it suggests that language is a tool through which reality is constructed and that meanings are relative and context-dependent.
• Play of Signifiers: Language is seen as a play of signifiers with no ultimate or fixed meanings. According to this view, meanings are constantly shifting due to the play of language and the influence of cultural and social contexts.

3. Communication:

• Multiplicity of Discourses: Communication is viewed as a site of multiple, often conflicting discourses. Post-modernism highlights that communication is not about transmitting a single, clear message but about engaging with various interpretations and meanings.
• Intertextuality: Communication is understood as interconnected with other texts and discourses. The meaning of any communication is shaped by its relationship to other texts and cultural narratives.

Truncated Repertoires and Disposable Linguistic Resources

1. Truncated Repertoires:

• Definition: Truncated repertoires refer to the limited or reduced range of linguistic and cultural resources that individuals or groups use in specific contexts. This concept highlights that people may draw upon only a subset of their full linguistic and cultural repertoire depending on the situation.
• Implications: This reduction can occur due to various factors, such as social constraints, situational demands, or institutional requirements. It reflects the selective nature of language and cultural practices in different contexts and the way certain aspects of identity and expression are foregrounded while others are sidelined.

2. Disposable Linguistic Resources:

• Definition: Disposable linguistic resources refer to the temporary, often superficial, use of language forms and expressions that are employed for specific purposes or contexts and then discarded. This concept underscores the transient and pragmatic use of language in post-modern contexts.
• Implications: This idea suggests that language is used more instrumentally and less as a stable means of expression or identity. Words, phrases, or language forms are often employed for immediate effect or utility and then abandoned or replaced as contexts and needs change.

Example of Truncated Repertoires and Disposable Linguistic Resources:

1. Truncated Repertoires:

• Workplace Communication: In a corporate setting, employees may use a limited set of formal or technical terms specific to their roles. This truncated repertoire focuses on efficiency and professionalism, while other aspects of their linguistic and cultural background may be less visible in this context.

2. Disposable Linguistic Resources:

• Social Media Trends: On social media platforms, users often employ slang, hashtags, and memes that are current and relevant for a short period. These linguistic resources are used temporarily to engage with trending topics or viral phenomena and are quickly replaced as new trends emerge.

Conclusion

The post-modernist view of culture, language, and communication emphasizes the constructed, fluid, and fragmented nature of these concepts. It challenges traditional notions of fixed meanings and stable identities, highlighting the role of context, discourse, and intertextuality. The concepts of truncated repertoires and disposable linguistic resources reflect the practical and often transient use of linguistic and cultural elements in various contexts, illustrating the dynamic and evolving nature of communication and identity in a post-modern world.